transient ischemic attack,英语作文 红十字会急救培训课程,请根据表中信息,写一篇100字左右的短文

transient ischemic attack,英语作文 红十字会急救培训课程,请根据表中信息,写一篇100字左右的短文详细介绍

本文目录一览： TIA症状是什么临床症状

　　短暂性脑缺血发作（transient
ischemic
attack，TIA）是指因脑血管病变引起的短暂性、局限性脑功能缺失或视网膜功能障碍，临床症状一般持续10~20分钟，多在1小时内缓解，最长不超过24小时，不遗留神经功能缺损症状，结构影像学（CT、MRI）检查无责任病灶。凡临床症状持续超过1小时且神经影像学检查有明确病灶者不宜称为TIA。
　　TIA是脑卒中的高危因子，一次TIA发作后，脑卒中发生率一月内为4%~8%，一年内为12%~13%，5年内为24%~29%。TIA频繁发作者48小时内发生缺血性脑卒中的几率可达50%。
　　中国TIA的人群患病率为每年180/10万，男
：女约为3
：1。TIA的发病率随年龄的增加而增加。由于TIA发作时间的限定尚有争议，TIA的发病率差异较大。

小中风能治好吗

人们说的轻微中风，即是小中风(Transient Ischemic Attack)，常在爆发性中风（主要中风）前的几个小时或几天内发生，医学上称这现象为中风预兆。虽然是小中风，但是还是得用一般对待中风病人的态度来治疗，不可掉以轻心。
小中风的正确医学名为暂时性缺血中风，是由于小血块阻塞血管而发生的，发作迅速。
中风前的一个星期曾有过小中风
英国研究发现，病人中风前常有小中风出现。当地研究人员分析549名中风病人个案，发现他们在中风前都曾经历过小中风，有17%病人的小中风在主要中风当天发生，9%病人则在中风病发前的一天发生，另有43%的病人是在中风前的一个多星期经历过小中风。
小中风发生前，通常会有明显的征兆，如由血管梗化引发脑栓塞的一类中风，征兆包括突然间口齿不清、说话模糊、身体局部麻痹、四肢无力、失去平衡力、老眼昏花、视力出现问题等等，这些症状可维持几分钟至数小时。至于如脑出血的中风，有小部分病人会出现突发性及间歇性的头痛。
经历小中风的病人，往往不晓得自己已在爆发性中风边缘徘徊，即使身体出现毛病，也以为是其他问题，如突然的视力模糊、步伐不稳、头晕目眩等，可能不会联想到中风，或是因脑部问题所引起的，而是找一般医生看病了事，这可是延误了治疗中风的好时机。此外，小中风发生的时间很短，病人不以为意，认为休息一阵子便没事，而小中风的症状的确很快消失，因此病人容易忽视治疗的急迫性。
事实上，发生小中风后，大部分患者会在一两个星期内发生大中风，如果能在小中风发生时及时治疗病情，病人的生命较有保障。因血管硬化引发的中风，可靠药物输通血管，但是必须在3小时内服药，错过这段时间，治病的成功率便减低。这3小时非常有限，因为还得计算送院、检查、进行扫描等时间在内。
其他危险因素也应控制下来
小中风发生时，除了药物治疗外，同时也要控制引起中风的危险因素，如高血压、高胆固醇、糖尿病、心脏病、血脂过高、吸烟等。另有一小部分人士（尤其是吸烟者），颈部血管较狭窄，要透过手术扩张血管，才可减低大中风发生的风险。
一旦发生小中风或爆发性中风，病人于90天内发生中风的几率很高，因为还有很多危险因素仍未得到控制，因此就算未发生小中风时，但已发现自己有危险因素，就要尽快采取行动，这是治疗中风的重要原则。
中风病患中，半年内有死亡或伤残者超过半数，及早注意小中风的症状及控制高危因素，日后康复也较理想。
中风类别中，脑出血（血管爆裂）较脑栓塞为多，因此很多人会以“爆血管”来表示中风。然而近20年来，所说的中风多是脑栓塞，这是由于脑出血的病例已减少，主要原因是这些年来，治疗因高血压引起的脑出血的医学技术已不断进步，病人的高血压得到很好的控制，脑出血的机会就大为降低了。脑栓塞除了因高血压造成外，还有糖尿病、血脂过高等高危因素，这些都是年长者常面对的问题。
这要看发现以及治疗的早晚，很多脑中风患者在早期就进行溶栓治疗的话，效果还是很好的，要是比较晚的话，或多或少会议留一点后遗症状...
中风形成于脑血栓形成造成的脑梗塞导致的脑细胞坏死有关， 可以说脑细胞一旦坏死， 没有再生和完全修复的可能， 但是通过科学治疗和科学的运动和锻炼，运动和感觉功能是可以改善的

英语作文 红十字会急救培训课程,请根据表中信息,写一篇100字左右的短文

mmmmm
Patient suddenly felt dizzy, trance, blurred vision, or black eyes, weakness, which is presyncope; attendant loss of consciousness, fell to the ground, a few seconds to recover within a few minutes as usual, stood up to walk, and some Within half an hour the patient may have a sense of malaise. In many cases, patients with soft down quickly rather than fall, there is no loss of consciousness, or with experience recurrent, timely squat, the symptoms quickly disappear. Syncope or slow down the heart rate faster, blood pressure, paleness, cold sweats can. Syncope basically sitting or standing occurs, such as occurs in the supine position should pay attention to whether people with cardiovascular disease, such as cardiac arrhythmias, transient ischemic attack, or epilepsy. Whatever the causes of syncope, immediately placing the patient supine, take Trendelenburg, loosen your belt and warm. Witnesses also be centripetal massage from the lower limbs started to promote blood flow to the brain; at the same time pressing or human patient Hoku point, the patient awake by painful stimuli; Do not rush to sober up after syncope, in order to avoid causing syncope again; Consider organic diseases such as patients, conducting on-site such as hypoglycemia in patients with post-treatment to supplement sugar, give cough cough syncope, etc., to go to hospital for treatment for causes of syncope.

血糖高的人会有什么严重后果

高血糖如果得不到很好的控制，就会导致机体脱水及高渗性昏迷、电解质紊乱及酸中毒、代谢紊乱、胰岛功能衰竭、抵抗力下降等，给身体健康和生命造成很大的威胁。所以，一但发现高血糖，要及时就医，控制饮食，配合药物来综合治理。
糖尿病患者自身血糖高并不是主要危害。而是糖尿病并发症，给患者的生活质量带来比较严重的影响。如果血糖长期控制不稳定，或者是糖尿病的病程过长，就会造成一系列的并发症，比较常见的并发症有微血管病变，大血管病变，糖尿病周围神经病变。糖尿病微血管病变包括糖尿病视网膜病变，糖尿病肾病。大血管病变主要为心血管的供血异常，是目前造成糖尿病死亡率比较高的最主要原因。
1
如果血糖长期控制不稳定，或者是糖尿病的病程过长，就会造成一系列的并发症，比较常见的并发症有微血管病变，大血管病变，糖尿病周围神经病变。糖尿病微血管病变包括糖尿病视网膜病变，糖尿病肾病。大血管病变主要为心血管的供血异常，是目前造成糖尿病死亡率比较高的最主要原因。
1 青菜,每天一斤.(还可以再多)
2 主食,每餐二两.(根据病人的体重指数和活动量适当加减)
3 水果,每天三两.(指桔子苹果梨等,西瓜可到一斤,空腹血糖10以上暂不吃水果)
4 油脂,每天四钱.(植物油为主)
5 蛋白质,每天五份,包括1两鱼 1两肉 1个鸡蛋 1袋奶和1份豆制品(1两豆腐干或2两豆腐或1碗豆汁或豆腐脑).合并肾病的不要吃豆制品,其他蛋白质也酌减.
6 盐,每天六克.
7 水,每天七杯.(指一次性纸杯,水可以更多,有浮肿的要减少)
注意饮食的同时，每天坚持吃“信和安堂虫草花”一小把，很多人在吃，可以尝试！其含有的虫草多糖物质能够刺激分泌胰岛素，抑制输出肝葡萄糖，增强肝脏内葡萄糖代谢酶的活力，从而达到降低血糖的功效。

哪有300字左右的英语文章？（做摘抄用的）

1 Department of Community Medicine, University of Hong Kong, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China,2 Department of Health, Student Health Service, 4/F Lam Tin Polyclinic, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China,3 Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6HE
Introduction
Passive smoking can cause death from lung cancer and coronary heart disease, but there is little evidence for associations with other causes of death in never smokers. A recent study showed increased all cause mortality with exposure to secondhand smoke at home but did not examine associations with specific causes of death and dose-response relations.1 We have published estimates of the mortality attributable to active smoking in Hong Kong2 and now present the related findings on passive smoking at home.
Participants, methods, and results
Details of the sample selection and data collection have been reported.2 Each person who reported a death in 1998 at four death registries was given a questionnaire which asked about the lifestyle 10 years earlier of the decedent and of a living person about the same age who was well known to the informant. Passive smoking was identified in the interview with the question, "Ten years ago, in about 1988, excluding the decedent/control, how many persons who lived with the decedent/control smoked" Decedents or controls who lived with one or more smokers were classed as exposed. Cause of death was obtained from the death certificate.
We selected never smoking decedents and controls aged 60 years or over because there were few younger controls. To avoid selection bias, we included only cases and controls who had a living spouse at the time of reporting. We used logistic regression to derive odds ratios adjusted for age and education, and for sex when men and women were combined.
What is known on this topic
There is strong evidence that passive smoking is causally associated with death from lung cancer, coronary heart disease, and all causes, and also with acute stroke
What this study adds
The dose-response relation between passive smoking and mortality from stroke and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, as well as from lung cancer, ischaemic heart disease, and all causes of death, strengthens the causal link
We identified 4838 never smoking cases (55% male) and 763 never smoking controls (55% male). All controls were used in the analysis for each specific cause of death.
We found significant dose dependent associations between passive smoking and mortality from lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, stroke, ischaemic heart disease, and from all cancers, all respiratory and circulatory diseases, and all causes (table). The association between mortality and passive smoking did not differ between males and females. Deaths due to injury or poisoning were not associated with passive smoking.
Number of subjects who were or were not exposed to secondhand smoke at home and odds ratios (adjusted for age and education, and for sex when men and women were combined) for mortality in people aged 60 or over, Hong Kong. Values are odds ratio (95% confidence interval) unless indicated otherwise
Comment
Dose dependent associations between passive smoking and causes of death are consistent with previous findings for lung cancer and coronary heart disease and extend the evidence on stroke. Previous studies have shown associations between passive smoking and first acute strokes,3 4 and we have now shown a dose-response relation with mortality from stroke. Previous studies focused on ischaemic strokes but Chinese populations have a greater incidence of haemorrhagic stroke than do white populations,5 implying that many of the strokes in our study may have been non-ischaemic. Passive smoking probably affects all stroke subtypes, as does active smoking.
Our finding of a 34% increase in all cause mortality is consistent with but higher than that (15%) in the New Zealand cohort.1 Exposure to secondhand smoke at home is higher in Hong Kong than in New Zealand due to crowded living conditions. Before the 1990s, awareness of the danger of passive smoking was lower and smokers smoked freely at home.
We focused on passive smoking at home because the proxy reporter could most reliably supply these data, and we adjusted for education, which was also reliably recorded2 and is a good proxy for social class in Hong Kong. As data on cases and controls were derived from the same proxy, reporting bias should be minimal.2 If our results are not due to residual confounding, they provide further evidence that the dose-response associations between passive smoking and stroke and all cause mortality are likely to be causal.
See Editorial by Kawachi
This article was posted on bmj.com on 27 January 2005:
We thank W L Cheung for help with analysis; the Immigration Department of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region for data and assistance; and, in particular, the relatives who provided information.
Contributors: THL, SYH, AJH, KHM, and RP designed and carried out the study on which this analysis was based; SMcG, MS, LMH, and GNT planned and carried out this analysis; and all authors contributed to writing the paper. SMcG and THL are guarantors.
Funding: Hong Kong Health Services Research Committee (#631012) and Hong Kong Council on Smoking and Health.
Competing interests: THL is vice chairman and AJH a former chairman of the Hong Kong Council on Smoking and Health.
Ethical approval: Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong.
References
Hill SE, Blakely TA, Kawachi I, Woodward A. Mortality among never smokers living with smokers: two cohort studies, 1981-4 and 1996-9. BMJ 2004;328: 988-9.
Lam TH, Ho SY, Hedley AJ, Mak KH, Peto R. Mortality and smoking in Hong Kong: case-control study of all adult deaths in 1998. BMJ 2001;323: 361-2.
Bonita R, Duncan J, Truelson T, Jackson RT, Beaglehole R. Passive smoking as well as active smoking increases the risk of acute stroke. Tobacco Control 1999;8: 156-60.
Iribarren C, Darbinian J, Klatsky AL, Friedman GD. Cohort study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and risk of first ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack. Neuroepidemiology 2004;23: 38-44.
Kay R, Woo J, Kreel L, Wong HY, Teoh R, Nicholls MG. Stroke subtypes among Chinese living in Hong Kong: the Shatin stroke registry. Neurology 1992;42: 985-7.
right beside you
The passengers on the bus watched sympathetically as the young woman with the white cane made her way1 carefully up the steps. She paid the driver and then, using her hands to feel the location of the seats, settled in to one. She placed her briefcase on her lap and rested her cane against her leg.
It had been a year since Susan, thirty-four, became blind. As the result of a medical accident she was sightless, suddenly thrown into a world of darkness, anger, frustration and self-pity. All she had to cling to2 was her husband Mark.
Mark was an Air Force officer and he loved Susan with all his heart. When she first lost her sight, he watched her sink into despair and he became determined to use every means possible to help his wife.
Finally, Susan felt ready to return to her job, but how would she get there? She used to take the bus, but she was now too frightened to get around the city by herself. Mark volunteered to ride the bus with Susan each morning and evening until she got the hang of3 it. And that is exactly what happened.
For two weeks, Mark, military uniform and all, accompanied Susan to and from work each day. He taught her how to rely on her other senses, specifically her hearing, to determine where she was and how to adapt to4 her new environment. He helped her befriend the bus drivers who could watch out for her, and save her a seat.
Each morning they made the journey together, and Mark would take a taxi back to his office. Although that meant he had to travel through the city and the routine was costly and exhausting, Mark knew it was only a matter of① time before Susan would be able to ride the bus on her own. He believed in her.
Finally, Susan decided that she was ready to try the trip on her own. Monday morning arrived. Before she left, she embraced her husband tightly. Her eyes filled with tears of gratitude for his loyalty, his patience, and his love. She said good-bye and, for the first time, they went their separate ways. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday... Each day on her own went perfectly, and a wild gaiety5 took hold of Susan. She was doing it! She was going to work all by herself!
On Friday morning, Susan took the bus to work as usual. As she was exiting the bus, the driver said, “Miss, I sure envy you.” Curious, Susan asked the driver why.
“You know, every morning for the past week, a fine looking gentleman in a military uniform has been standing across the corner watching you when you get off the bus. He makes sure you cross the street safely and he watches you until you enter your office building. Then he blows you a kiss, gives you a salute6 and walks away. You are one lucky lady,” the bus driver said.
Tears of happiness poured down Susan's cheeks. She was so lucky for he had given her a gift more powerful than sight, a gift she didn't need to see to believe—the gift of love that can bring light where there is darkne
建议你抄抄歌词~很棒嘀哦~~
至于注释嘛~~自己找吧~
自己找好了
　　英语现在已经发展成为一个在世界范围内使用最广泛的语言。我精心收集了300-400字的英语美文摘抄，供大家欣赏学习! 　　300-400字的英语美文摘抄篇1 　　Me: 　　The clock is ticking and tomorrow is my special day. 　　时钟滴滴答答的走着，明天对我来说意义非凡。 　　I wonder what people will say. 　　我想知道人们会怎么说。 　　Will they greet me or just say hi. 　　他们会欢迎我吗?还是仅仅说声“你好”。 　　Ha-ha as if they all remember my natal day. 　　哈哈，说得好像他们都记得我出生那天一样。 　　Mther: 　　Oh! One thing I realize as I get little older is that we should value our lives and spend it meaningfully. 　　当大一点的时候，我开始意识到，我们应该珍惜当下生活，让它变得有意义。 　　Dream big and set plans. 　　放胆做梦，并为此指定计划。 　　I thank God for helping me to achieve my goal each year. 　　感谢上帝，让我每年的目标都得以实现。 　　Although not everything is perfect, but somewhat closer to that. I surpassed my 2016 with a #goalmet and proudly to say that building my own family is a gift. 　　虽不是所有的目标都实现得非常完美，但是多少都在朝着目标迈进。2016年的目标我都已经达成，而且还为家庭建设孕育了一个礼物为此我很傲娇。 　　Thank you God for the most special gift I got last year. Soon I will get to see it. I do promise to take good care of it. 　　感谢上苍在2016年就给我了这个特别的礼物，不久我就会见到TA了而且我发誓我会好好照顾TA 　　Me and my husband waiting for our fruit. A fruit made with love. A fruit that we dream of. A special gift that forever we will treasure. A baby I will name as baby Z.。

丈夫和我都在等待我们的结晶，我们都梦寐以求的爱的结晶.这份特别的礼物我们都会永远珍惜。我们会给这个宝贝取名叫Z。 　　300-400字的英语美文摘抄篇2 　　I'm just sitting here in my room today, listening to music while it rains outside my window, and I can't stop thinking about how happy I am and how great my life is. There's nothing particularly special about it - I'm not rich or famous, I'm not exceptionally talented, and I don't do anything particularly fabulous for a living. But I feel somewhat organized, I have a clean room and a car and a job, and most of all what makes it great is the mere fact that I feel happy. 　　今天我坐在自己的房间里，听着音乐，窗外下着雨，我不由得感到自己是多么愉快、生活是多么美妙。尽管我不是什么大富大贵，社会名流，也没有智力超群，或是做什么伟大的事情来营生。但是我感觉一切井井有条，我有一个干净的房间、一辆车以及一份工作。但是最重要的是，我单纯觉得快乐。 　　I know this may not seem like the most interesting story in the world, but when I was twelve, I was deeply suicidal. 　　我知道这看起来不像是什么世间的奇闻异事，但是在我12岁的时候，我非常想自杀。 　　I'm sharing my good mood today because I know there are tons of people out there who struggle with life. 　　今天我和大家分享这种岁月静好的心情，是因为我知道还有很多人都遭受生活的苦楚和折磨。 　　Not even necessarily the outward details of their lives, but the inner demons that exist within their minds. 　　不仅仅有生活中的外在琐事给他们添堵，还有内心的怪兽在作祟。 　　I want you to know - if that's you - that the mere possibility of reaching a place of inner peace is worth it. It is worth hanging on for. 　　我想让你们知道的是，很少有人能真正达到内心平和，但是这种为达到这种状态值得坚持磨炼。 　　I was probably 25 when happiness and contentment became my default emotions. It took a long time, and it took a lot of change, pain and growth. But now that I'm here, it feels permanent. And the emotions of the past feel like they happened to someone else. They are so foreign and distant to me. For some, it may take even longer, and it may take even more. But I cannot imagine even for a second that the struggle wouldn't be worth it if this is the end result. 　　我可能直到25岁才让知足常乐变成一种情绪上的常态。这中间需要很长的时间，很多的改变，痛苦让你成长。现如今我的情绪变得稳定而长久，回忆起之前的种种好像是发生在别人的身上，对于现在我来说是那么的陌生和遥远。对于有些人来说，获得这种安定的心境要花更长的时间，做更多的改变。但是如果经历了所有折磨还是无法改变什么，结果一点都不值得，关于这个我想都不敢想。 　　That's it. I just wanted to share my positive vibes with everybody. The world can be an amazing place if you let it, and you can be an amazing person. You probably already are. Good luck, and please never give up. I hope that today, you all feel a little bit of love. Thanks for reading. 　　我想用这种积极的情绪感染大家。只要你想世界就会变得美好，同样的你也可以成为更好的人。也许你已经足够好了。那么好运，要保持不要放弃。我希望我的分享能够让你感觉到一点小温柔。 　　300-400字的英语美文摘抄篇3 　　Being Thankful Despite The Odds 　　不管未来怎样，我都要过得快乐。 　　My name is Judy and I am doing a GoFundMe campaign for my mom, everyone knows her as, Kelly. 　　我叫朱迪，我为我妈妈参加了一个“去找到我”的活动，每个人都因此认识她，凯利。 　　My mom has been through a tremendous amount of pain and suffering given her ongoing, serious medical issues. 　　我妈妈在她前进道路上经历过许许多多疼痛与痛苦，包括严重的病痛。 　　She is beating the odds and fights everyday. 　　她不给任何困难机会，每天与病魔抗争。 　　Despite everything, she felt it important to make and deliver fruit gift baskets to all of the doctors and rehab facility offices a couple days ago, just to say "Thank you" for helping her. 　　尽管如此艰难，她还是认为，在前几天给所有医生和康复办公室的工作人员制作果篮并送给他们，是非常重要的，一切只为了对帮助她的人说声“谢谢”。 　　She has been in bed since as it wiped her out for days. 　　从她被隔离有一段时间开始，她就一直卧床。 　　She continues to struggle everyday. 　　她仍然坚持每天与病魔抗争。 　　She tries to find the little things she is thankful for and I think this helps her continue to put one foot in front of the other. 　　她试着发现每一个微不足道却值得她感激的细节，我觉得这些帮她一步一步艰难地坚持着向前走。 　　She's a trooper! My mom and I are so grateful and appreciative of everyone's help and support so far. 　　她是一个骑士!我妈妈和我都特别感激至今为止，每个人的努力和支持。 　　Up to this point, with what we have raised, we have been able to pay some of the bills so far including one of the rehab center bills. Yeah! 　　说到这里，在筹集到的善款的帮助下，到现在为止我们已经能够付得起一些账单了，包括一笔来自康复中心的账单。太好了! 　　But, we still have a lot more bills and collection company notices to pay. 　　但是，我们仍然有许多账单和讨债公司的催款要还。 　　Reaching our goal would help decrease her enormous stress and worry that I know cannot be helping her recover and get stronger. 　　实现我们的目标会帮助减轻妈妈的巨大压力和担忧，我知道这些东西是不会帮她恢复和变得坚强的。 　　Asking for help, especially in such a public forum, is very difficult for both of us. 　　寻求帮助，尤其是在这样一个公共平台上，对我们来说太难了。 　　Please share our story on facebook, twitter, your email contacts and so on. 　　请大家在Facebook，Twitter，邮箱连接中分享我们的故事吧。 　　Thank you for reading our story and for your donation, if possible. 　　如果可以的话，谢谢大家阅读我们的故事，也谢谢大家的捐赠。 　　Our hope is that you all have a Happy, Healthy 2017! 　　我们的愿望是大家都可以拥有一个快乐，健康的2017年。

英语介绍阿司匹林作用

What Is Aspirin? What Is Aspirin For?
Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is a salicylate drug, and
is generally used as an analgesic (something that relieves pain without
producing anesthesia or loss of consciousness) for minor aches and
pains, to reduce fever (an antipyretic), and also as an anti-inflammatory drug.
Aspirin has also become increasingly popular as an antiplatelet - used
to prevent blood clot formation - in long-term low doses to prevent heart attacks and strokes
in high risk patients. Nowadays, aspirin is often given to patients
immediately after a heart attack to prevent recurrence or cardiac tissue
death.
Aspirin is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
(NSAID). NSAIDs are medications with analgesic, antipyretic (something
that reduces a fever), and in higher doses anti-inflammatory effects.
Non-steroidal means they are not steroids, which often have similar
effects. As analgesics, NSAIDs are generally non-narcotic (do not cause
insensibility or stupor). The most prominent NSAIDs are aspirin,
ibuprofen and naproxen - mainly because most of them are OTC
(over-the-counter, no prescription required) medications. Aspirin was
the first discovered NSAID.
Aspirin in its present form has been around for over 100 years and is
still one of the most widely used medications in the world. It is
estimated that approximately 40,000 metric tons of it is consumed
annually. Aspirin is a trademark owned by German pharmaceutical company Bayer; the generic term is acetylsalicylic acid (ASA).
A short history of aspirin
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) is a derivative of salicylate, which can be found in such plants as willow trees and myrtle.
ca. 3000 BC - An ancient Sumer stone tablet from the
Third Dynasty of Ur of medical text mentions willow-tree based remedies.
However, it does not specify what the remedies were for. Sumer was a
civilization and a historical region located in Mesopotamia, southern
Iraq, known as the "Cradle of civilization".
ca. 1543 BC - The Ebers Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian
medical text, mentions willow and myrtle being used for remedies to
treat pain, fever and inflammation. Some say that although the text is ancient it may be a copy of the original.
ca. 460-370 BC - Hippocrates, a Greek physician, recommended willow bark preparations for childbirth pains and controlling fever.
ca. 30 AD - Aulus Cornelius Celsus, an encyclopedist,
mentioned willow leaf extract for "redness, heat, swelling and pain" -
what he termed as "the four signs of inflammation" in his De Medicina, believed to be the only surviving section of a much larger encyclopedia.
ca. 40-90 AD - Pedanius Dioscorides, a Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist, mentioned remedies from the willow plant in his De Materia Medica (Regarding Medical Matters), a five-volume book that was translated into Latin (he wrote the original in Greek).
23-79 AD - Gaius Plinius Secundus (known as Piny the Elder), a
naturalist, author and naval commander in the early Roman Empire,
mentioned willow plant remedies in an encyclopedic work called Naturalis Historia (Natural History).
200 AD - remedies derived from the willow plant were widely used throughout the Roman Empire and Arab civilizations.
Before 1492 - Before the Europeans ever set foot in America,
the Huron, Mohawk, Cree, Chippewa and many other north American tribes
had been using the bark and twigs of the American White Willow to make
remedies and teas for the treatment of pain relief, inflammation and
fevers. Ancient Aztec and Mayan folklore in Mexico and Central America
mention the use of 'sauce' (willow) for similar treatments.
1763 - Edward Stone, England, a Church of England rector wrote a letter to the Royal Society
which described some of his experiments with willow bark extract to
cure ague - a word used to describe intermittent fever, pain, chills
fatigue; probably malaria.
He compared the effects of willow bark to Peruvian bark, which contains
quinine (and attacks the infectious cause of malaria). He noticed that
the willow bark relieved symptoms of ague, while the Peruvian bark was
more effective. He had discovered salicylic acid, the active ingredient
in aspirin. Willow bark derived remedies subsequently became much more
popular in England than the more expensive Peruvian bark.
1800s - Organic chemistry began to develop rapidly in Europe.
Several scientists tried to isolate and purify the active ingredients
of many medications, including willow bark.
1828 - Joseph Buchner, a German chemist, managed to obtain what were then considered as fairly pure salicin crystals.
1829 - Henri Leroux, a French chemist obtained purer forms.
1830 - Johann Pagenstecher, a Swiss pharmacist, said he had
discovered a new painkiller which he had isolated from the common remedy
of meadowsweet Spiraea ulmaria, which we know today contained salicylic acid, flavone-glycosides, essential oils and tannins.
1838 - Raffaele Piria, an Italian chemist, managed to devise a
way of obtaining a more powerful acid form of willow extract, which he
called salicylic acid. Karl Jacob Lowig, who was trying to isolate the active ingredients in Spiraea, eventually found out that it was the same salicylic acid that Piria had identified.
1840-1894 - During this period various forms of salicylate
medicines, including salicin, salicylic acid, and sodium salicylate
became more widely used by doctors for the treatment of pain, fever and
inflammation. However, their gastric irritation side effects were
considerable.
1890 - Friedrich Carl Duisberg, a German chemist and
industrialist became head of the management of Bayer, a large German
company. He created a pharmaceutical division within the company and
placed Arthur Eichengrun, a former university chemist in charge.
Heinrich Dreser was placed in charge of a pharmacology group for testing
new drugs.
1894 - Felix Hoffman, a German chemist, joined Bayer's
pharmaceutical group. These three men, Dreser, Eichengrun and Hoffman,
were to become key players in the development of acetylsalicylic acid as
Aspirin.
1897 - Hoffman's boss, Eichengrun, assigned him to find a
substitute for salicylic acid; one that did not irritate the stomach so
much. Hoffman eventually found the best way of making acetylsalicylic
acid (ASA), from salicylic acid refluxed with acetic anhydride (reflux =
to boil a liquid in a vessel attached to a condenser so that the vapors
continuously condense for reboiling). The ASA was sent to the
pharmacology group for testing, and initial results were good. However,
the ASA did not proceed to clinical trials because Dreser was concerned
about salicylic acid's effect on weakening the heart - probably because
of the doses given to patients with rheumatism. Hoffman had progressed
in developing diacetylmorphine, which became Dreser's focus for
development - this eventually led to the invention and branding of heroin.
Eichengrun, annoyed with Dreser's reluctance, wanted to pursue clinical
trials with ASA, so he approached Felix Golgmann, Bayer's Berlin
representative, and arranged for surreptitious clinical trials. The
trials gave good results, without the hitherto complications that
occurred with salicylic acid. Dreser still objected, but big boss
Duisberg ordered full testing.
Eventually, Dreser accepted that ASA had great potential and Bayer proceeded with production.
Dreser wrote a report about the findings, but did not mention Hoffman or
Eichengrun in it. For many years Dreser said Hoffman was the sole
discoverer of Aspirin.
Arthur Eichengrun died in December 1949. Earlier in that year he wrote an article Fifty Years of Aspirin
in which he said that Hoffman did not know the purpose of his research
and that Hoffmann's role was restricted to the initial lab synthesis
using Eichengrun's process and nothing more.
Controversy continued for many decades, and still does so to a certain
extent today, as to who was primarily responsible for aspirin's
development. According to Bayer today, it was Hoffman. Some historians
agree while others don't. Eichengrun went on to hold 47 patents for
various inventions. However, he never disputed aspirin's claim to
priority until half a century later, even though he had ample
opportunity to do so.
1915 - Aspirin became available as an OTC (over-the-counter, no prescription required) medication in tablet form.
1920s - Aspirin became a commonly used medication for the treatment of neuralgia, lumbago and rheumatism.
1948 - A Californian GP (general practitioner, primary care
physician) reported that many of his patients who regularly took aspirin
had significantly lower rates of heart attacks.
1952 - Chewable Aspirin became available.
1969 - Apollo Moon astronauts had Aspirin included in their self-medication kits.
1988 - The FDA (Food and Drug Administration), USA, proposed
use of aspirin for reducing risk of recurrent myocardial infarction,
heart attack, and preventing first myocardial infarction in patients
with unstable angina.
The same agency also approved aspirin use for the prevention of
recurrent mini-strokes (recurrent transient-ischemic attacks) in men, it
also made aspirin standard therapy for men after suffering a stroke.
1988 - A study by Dr. Charles Hennekens and team found that
aspirin dramatically reduces risk of a first myocardial infection.
Hennekens later found the same for cardiovascular disease.
1998 - A major study, The Hypertension Optimal Study, published in The Lancet showed that low dose ASA combined with medication for hypertension significantly reduced the risk of myocardial infarction and major cardiovascular events in patients with hypertension.
Aspirin is used in the treatment of a number of conditions, including fever, pain, rheumatic fever, and inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, pericarditis, and Kawasaki disease. Lower doses of aspirin have also shown to reduce the risk of death from a heart attack, or the risk of stroke in some circumstances. There is some evidence that aspirin is effective at preventing colorectal cancer, though the mechanisms of this effect are unclear.
下面是历史
A French chemist, Charles Frederic Gerhardt, was the first to prepare acetylsalicylic acid in 1853. In the course of his work on the synthesis and properties of various acid anhydrides, he mixed acetyl chloride with asodium salt of salicylic acid (sodium salicylate). A vigorous reaction ensued, and the resulting melt soon solidified. Since no structural theory existed at that time, Gerhardt called the compound he obtained "salicylic-acetic anhydride" (wasserfreie Salicyls?ure-Essigs?ure). This preparation of aspirin ("salicylic-acetic anhydride") was one of the many reactions Gerhardt conducted for his paper on anhydrides and he did not pursue it further.
Advertisement for Aspirin, Heroin, Lycetol, and Salophen
Six years later, in 1859, von Gilm obtained analytically pure acetylsalicylic acid (which he called acetylierte Salicyls?ure, acetylated salicylic acid) by a reaction of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride. In 1869, Schr?der, Prinzhorn and Kraut repeated both Gerhardt's (from sodium salicylate) and von Gilm's (from salicylic acid) syntheses and concluded both reactions gave the same compound—acetylsalicylic acid. They were first to assign to it the correct structure with the acetyl group connected to the phenolic oxygen.
In 1897, chemists working at Bayer AG produced a synthetically altered version ofsalicin, derived from the species Filipendula ulmaria (meadowsweet), which caused less digestive upset than pure salicylic acid. The identity of the lead chemist on this project is a matter of controversy. Bayer states the work was done by Felix Hoffmann, but the Jewish chemist Arthur Eichengrün later claimed he was the lead investigator and records of his contribution were expunged under the Naziregime.The new drug, formally acetylsalicylic acid, was named Aspirin byBayer AG after the old botanical name for meadowsweet, Spiraea ulmaria. By 1899, Bayer was selling it around the world. The name Aspirin is derived from "acetyl" and Spirs?ure, an old German name for salicylic acid. The popularity of aspirin grew over the first half of the 20th century, spurred by its supposed effectiveness in the wake of the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918. However, recent research suggests the high death toll of the 1918 flu was partly due to aspirin, as the doses used at times can lead to toxicity, fluid in the lungs, and, in some cases, contribute to secondary bacterial infections and mortality. Aspirin's profitability led to fierce competition and the proliferation of aspirin brands and products, especially after the American patent held by Bayer expired in 1917.
The popularity of aspirin declined after the market releases of paracetamol (acetaminophen) in 1956 andibuprofen in 1969. In the 1960s and 1970s, John Vane and others discovered the basic mechanism of aspirin's effects, while clinical trials and other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin's efficacy as an anticlotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases. Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the 20th century, and remain strong in the 21st century, because of its widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes.
Trademark
As part of war reparations specified in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles following Germany's surrender after World War I, Aspirin (along with heroin) lost its status as a registered trademark in France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, where it became a generic name. Today, aspirin is a generic word in Australia, France, India, Ireland, New Zealand, Pakistan, Jamaica, Colombia, the Philippines, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States. Aspirin, with a capital "A", remains a registered trademark of Bayer in Germany, Canada, Mexico, and in over 80 other countries, where the trademark is owned by Bayer, using acetylsalicylic acid in all markets, but using different packaging and physical aspects for each.

麻烦哪位医学英文高手给翻译个摘要啊？在线等！

背景:当代临床危险分层预测中风和throm图式boembolism TE),房颤患者(AF)在很大程度上是来自试验鉴定出危险因素的群组研究中进行确证。因此,许多潜在的危险因素有未包括在内。
方法:我们雅致的2006年伯明翰/民族卓越临床健康研究所(好)中风危险分层成一个风险factor-based图式的态度,reclassifying和/或采纳更多的地方出现危险因素有关。当时这个模式与现有的中风的风险比在现实生活中分层图式队列的房颤病人(n 5 1,084)调查欧洲心脏心房颤动。
结果:风险分类的不同方案更广泛的在不同的比较。患者归入高危的范围从10.2% 75.7%与弗莱明翰模式,伯明翰2009年的方案。典型的CHADS2(充血性心力衰竭、高血压、年龄。75、糖尿病、事先卒中/短暂性脑缺血发作)模式分类最大比例(61.9%)到intermediate-risk地层,而伯明翰2009年模式分类15.1%加入这一行列。2009年的伯明翰模式分类只有9.2%低风险,而福雷明罕方案作为分类48.3%的低风险。C-statistics建议谦虚的预测价值计算的模式为技术主任。2009年的伯明翰稍微更好(C-statistic模式中,0.606 CHADS2)。然而,那些归入低风险增加了伯明翰2009年又好的模式确实是低风险的没有TE事件是否有记录,而特事情都发生在1.4%的科目。CHADS2风险当表示为一个得分系统,伯明翰2009年CHA2DS2-VASc首字母缩写词)模式(TE有所增加速度和分数(P值增加趋势5 0.003)。
结论:我们的新奇、简单中风的风险,基于分层图式的风险因素,提出了改进方法的预测价值为技术主任CHADS2模式,实现了低事件发生率为低风险的分类的主题和只有一小部分的学科intermediate-risk范畴。这个模式可以提高我们对中风患者的危险分层心房颤动。胸部2010年;263-272 137(2):